Introduction
The word atonement involves the reparation for an offense or injury, especially the reconciliation of God and humankind through the sacrificial death of Jesus. As a verb, atone means "at one," as in the spirit of harmony between two previously estranged people. However, we must not confuse this oneness with God sharing his divinity. Jesus alone shares the state of "at-one-ness" with God in that sense (see John 3:16-18; 10:30).
The New Testament idea of atonement relates to the Old Testament theme of propitiation but also improves upon it. Propitiation accurately defines the Hebrew rites of animal sacrifice because the Israelites did them to receive or regain God's favor. Leviticus, the portion of the Law of Moses that God assigned to the Levitical priests, reads, "[He will] and do with this bull just as he did with the bull for the sin offering. In this way the priest will make atonement for the community, and they will be forgiven. Then he shall take the bull outside the camp and burn it as he burned the first bull. This is the sin offering for the community" (4:20-21).
Moreover, Jews observe the Day of Atonement (Hebrew: Yom Kippur; H3117, H3725) with extensive fasting, prayers, and synagogue liturgies. It is the most sacred day in the Hebrew calendar, and they grieve over their sins as a community, repenting before God (see Lev. 16:1-34; 23:26-32; Num. 29:7-11). However, neither the Messianic Jews nor we Christian Gentiles need to commemorate the Day of Atonement. The author of Hebrews wrote:
The Law is only a shadow of the good things that are coming—not the realities themselves. For this reason, it can never, by the same sacrifices repeated endlessly year after year, make perfect those who draw near to worship. Otherwise, would they not have stopped being offered? For the worshipers would have been cleansed once for all, and would no longer have felt guilty for their sins. But those sacrifices are an annual reminder of sins. It is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins. . . . And by that will, we have been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus Christ once for all (10:1-4, 10).
Atonement Themes
In Christian theology, there are seven primary theories of atonement. Unlike the other constructs of systematic theology, atonement soteriology allows for complementary views rather than contradictory ones. Each approach seeks to answer how Jesus atoned for our sins and what cosmic significance this has for all creation. Instead of discussing each atonement theory in isolation, this article considers the biblical themes of vicarious or substitutionary atonement, the eschatological defeat of the devil, and our share in Jesus' death and resurrection. In chronological order from church history, here are the seven models: ransom, recapitulation, satisfaction, penal substitution, moral influence, governmental, and Christ the victorious (Latin: Christus victor). Nevertheless, all of them match the literary themes of scripture. From a first-century or historical-grammatical perspective, we must understand Jesus' atonement as an entire narrative of redemption, holiness, justice, and fulfillment.
It is essential to recognize that each of these atonement theories represents an attempt to grasp the profound theological mystery of Jesus' work on the cross rather than a definitive explanation that excludes the others. Let us delve a bit deeper into each of these theories:
Ransom theory: This theory posits that Jesus' death was a ransom paid to Satan to free humanity from bondage. It draws from passages like Mark 10:45, where Jesus speaks of giving his life as a ransom for many.
Recapitulation theory: This theory, associated with figures like Irenaeus of Lyon (c. AD 130–c. 202), suggests that Jesus lived a perfect life to recapitulate or redo Adam's life in obedience, reversing Adam's disobedience and its consequences.
Satisfaction theory: Developed primarily by Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1034–1109), this theory argues that Christ's death satisfied the honor and justice of God, which had been offended by human sin.
Penal substitution theory: This view holds that Jesus took the punishment humans deserved for their sins upon himself, satisfying the demands of justice. It's based on passages like Isaiah 53:5-6 and Romans 3:25.
Moral influence theory: This theory, associated with figures like Peter Abelard (1079–1142), emphasizes that Jesus' death serves as a moral example, inspiring humans to repentance and transformation through love.
Governmental theory: Developed by figures like Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), this theory argues that Christ's death demonstrates God's justice while allowing for the forgiveness of sins without compromising divine law.
Christus victor: This theory, often associated with early church fathers like Origen of Alexandria (c. 185–c. 254) and later articulated by Gustaf Aulén (1879–1977), sees Jesus' death and resurrection as a victory over the powers of sin, death, and the devil. It emphasizes the cosmic battle and liberation from bondage.
While these theories emphasize different aspects of atonement, they are not mutually exclusive. They often complement one another and offer various facets of the multifaceted work of Christ on the cross. Understanding Jesus' atonement requires a holistic approach that considers the richness of biblical themes and theological reflection throughout history.
Christ the Substitute
The basic idea of atonement is that God, representing final justice, holds us responsible for our sins (Greek: hamartia; G266, lit. "miss the mark"). This is one of the main areas of Christian doctrine in which we must shun anthropomorphism, the idolatrous representation of God in human form. In this case, he is the omnipresent Logos (G3056; cf. John 1:1), the highest form of truth and jurisprudence. This legal framework is not some random metaphor but established by the Law of Moses (see Rom. 3:19-20). As fallen human beings, we have radical depravity that makes us violators, criminals, and rebel sinners (Rom. 3:10-12; cf. Ps. 14:1-3; 53:1-3; Eccl. 7:20). We are treacherous "Judases" culpable for many wicked things. God offers us a way of atonement for our revolting behavior in his mercy. Paul of Tarsus wrote, "For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Rom. 6:23). Final justice requires us to be convicted and sentenced to the death penalty. We are "dead men walking" in our trespasses of the Law of Moses. Unlike our modern court systems, God allowed the Jews to atone for their sins with a substitutionary offering, meaning an innocent animal had to die in the place of a guilty person. However, this atonement required a cycle of daily and yearly sacrifices at the Jerusalem temple.
Jesus became the Lamb of God to take away the world's sins as the ultimate sacrifice (see John 1:29). Theologically liberal churchgoers who misunderstand or deny God in the Trinity (see "Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views") employ the phrase "cosmic child abuse" to slander the doctrine of substitutionary atonement. They confuse Jesus' messianic "Son of God" title (see "Christology: Titles of Jesus") for the literal conception of a child. God came to sacrifice himself willingly to keep us from paying the penalty for our evil deeds. Jesus, as the incarnate Logos, came as a human being with the divinely essential DNA flowing through his veins (see "Definition of Chalcedon"). Justice cannot be waived, and God does not offer suspended sentences or clemency. Jesus' atonement "covers" (Hebrew: kafar; H3722) our sins so that God does not consider them as evidence against us. This alluded to the mercy seat that covered the Ark of the Covenant when God appeared to Israel on their Day of Atonement (see Exod. 25:17-22; 37:1-9). Jesus' innocence and his willingness to acquit us convince God to deny the admissibility, authenticity, completion, and reliability of the evidence stacked against us (see 2 Cor. 5:21). As the Lamb of God, Jesus took away the guilt of our sins by choosing to drink the vintage of God's wrath during his crucifixion (Matt. 26:39; Mark 14:36; Luke 22:42; cf. Isa. 51:17, 22; Jer. 25:15-16; Rev. 14:10; 16:19).
Christ the Victor
The victory of Christ Jesus began with the payment of a ransom. In our day, we usually think of ransom as payment when a criminal syndicate kidnaps someone. However, its classical definition is more synonymous with "bail," money that releases a prisoner. The legal framework of the Law of Moses also relates to the ransom and Christus victor models of atonement. For example, Moses wrote, "Receive the atonement money from the Israelites and use it for the service of the tent of meeting. It will be a memorial for the Israelites before the LORD, making atonement for your lives" (Exod. 30:16). This implies that God expected the people of Israel to offer monetary payment for their sins. This was a substitute for their blood, which gives life to humans and animals alike. The loss of blood results in death; therefore, the ransom served as a symbol of death.
However, Jesus fulfilled this payment when he died on the cross, giving his lifeblood to those who repent from their sins. Simon Peter wrote, "For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your ancestors, but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect" (1 Pet. 1:18-19). He paid this ransom to the Father, not to the devil, as some theologians like Origen of Alexandria (186–254) or Augustine of Hippo (354–430) in the past have mistakenly assumed (see Rom. 6:22-23). Jesus does not owe the devil anything. Instead, the Father subjected all things under Christ as Paul testified, "For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet" (1 Cor. 15:25; cf. Ps. 110:1) and, "God placed all things under his feet and appointed him to be head over everything for the church" (Eph. 1:22).
Sharing in Jesus' Death & Resurrection
The author of Hebrews wrote, "But when this priest had offered for all time one sacrifice for sins, he sat down at the right hand of God, and since that time he waits for his enemies to be made his footstool. For by one sacrifice, he has made perfect forever those who are being made holy" (10:12-14). This means Jesus made the atonement of humankind's sins once and that it covers them for all of human history. Moreover, we are still waiting for him to be the total Christus victor, which will happen at the world's end. In the meantime, we must crucify our flesh every day to avoid sin, like Jesus gave up his life for crucifixion (Gal. 5:24; cf. Matt. 16:24-26). We must also receive baptism (see "Baptism: Immersed in Christ"), as Paul testified:
We were, therefore, buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life. For if we have been united with him in a death like his, we will certainly also be united with him in a resurrection like his. For we know that our old self was crucified with him so that the body ruled by sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves to sin (Rom. 6:4-6).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the concept of atonement, rooted in both the Old and New Testaments, embodies the profound reconciliation between humanity and God. While the Old Testament rituals of propitiation sought to regain God's favor through sacrificial offerings, the New Testament unveils a more profound understanding through the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. His atoning sacrifice transcends the temporal and symbolic nature of animal sacrifices, offering a permanent solution to sin and guilt. This distinction is crucial, as it highlights the uniqueness of Jesus in embodying the state of "at-one-ness" with God. While traditions such as the Day of Atonement hold significance in Jewish practice, the Christian faith finds fulfillment in the once-for-all sacrifice of Christ, as elucidated in Hebrews. Therefore, the essence of atonement lies not in ceremonial observance but in embracing the transformative power of Jesus' sacrifice, which brings true reconciliation between humanity and God.
Prayer
Blessed are you, LORD our God, king of the universe; for you are mindful of your promise. Think of us, your servants, and when we shall depart, speak to our spirits these loving words: "Today you shall be with me in joy." Lord Jesus, remember us, your servants who trust in you when our tongues cannot speak, when the sight of our eyes fails, and when our ears are stopped. Let our spirits always rejoice in you and be joyful about our salvation, which you have purchased for us. Amen.
Bibliography
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