Introduction
The census of Roman aristocrat Quirinius (c. 51 BC–AD 21) is a well-known problem in biblical scholarship. It stumps both conservative and liberal scholars alike. Simply put, the timeline for Quirinius' census in Luke's gospel is an entire decade off from the archives of the Roman Empire. Even many conservative study Bibles, like the NIV Quest Study Bible: The Only Q and A Study Bible (Zondervan, p. 1514), concede the problem of Quirinius' census is unresolvable.
What happened, then? As a Christian who believes the Bible to be God-breathed (see 2 Tim. 3:16-17), I trust Luke's accuracy as an evangelist and historian. The scriptures must align with what we know to be true. Luke gave us a factual record after examining eyewitness claims about Jesus (1:1-4). When he said, "This first enrollment occurred when Quirinius governed Syria" (2:2), Luke hinted there was at least one other count. However, Quirinius did not become governor of Syria until AD 6, which also gave him control of Judea. Galilee, at that time, was not part of Judea province. The Judeo-Roman historian Josephus (AD 37–100) wrote about a local census, while Luke wrote about one ordered by the emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14) for all of the Roman Empire. Did Luke inflate a local count to have Mary and Joseph travel to Bethlehem? This problem would mean he wrote fake news instead of good news. Truthfully, there is no reason to pit Luke and Josephus against each other. We do not have all the information. Both men left us with knowledge gaps in their writings.
Historical Context
When the Romans took over Judea in AD 6, they wanted to count the people there. So, they appointed Quirinius, whose first act as governor was to put this census into effect. The Jews protested it because 1) God forbid Israel from counting its population in the Old Testament, and 2) The Romans were taking away their right to self-govern. There was also a clash when the Herodian soldiers killed a group of Jewish protesters who had taken the Romans' prominent eagle symbol off the temple's main gate. Herod planned to impress the Romans and to break the Jewish law on graven images, especially at the holiest site. If you notice the dates, this census occurred a decade after Jesus' birth. This timeline comes from Antiquities of the Jews (Bk. 18, Chs. 1–2) and The Jewish War (Bk. 2, Ch. 1, § 2) by Josephus, which does not match Luke's. The problem of Quirinius' census is common for biblical scholars, and the conservatives try to settle the differences or suggest Quirinius managed an earlier one. Liberal scholars say Luke's timeline was religious rather than historical.
Scholars also see a conflict between Matthew and Luke regarding their timelines. If Herod I died in 4 BC and Quirinius' census took place in AD 6, Jesus would be ten years old. Yet, he was not even born! Here is the best solution: Augustus began a "worldwide" census across the Roman Empire around 6 BC. This would have happened before Herod's death. Joseph and Mary traveled to Bethlehem for the census, as Luke wrote. This was to obey Augustus' decree. However, it took nearly a decade to finish due to staunch refusals by the Jews to the Roman count. This means Quirinius got the credit for the census, even though an earlier governor started it. This happens in our politics today when one president lays the groundwork for a specific policy, and a later one sees it to completion. We often give credit to the second president. For example, both Democrats and Republicans say the 1980s economic recovery began at the end of Pres. Jimmy Carter's administration (1977–1981). However, we call this "Reaganomics" and credit Pres. Ronald Reagan's administration (1981–1989). Both sides agreed there was a booming economic recovery during Reagan's presidency. However, they disagreed about the cause and who should get credit (Niskanen and Moore; Stein). Tertullian (AD c. 155–220), a third-century Christian writer from Carthage, named Sentius Saturninus (fl. late 1st century BC–1st century AD) the original Syrian governor for the census (Against Marcion, Bk. 4, Ch. 19).
Josephus' reports of violence surrounding the count give weight to this possibility. For example, the Zealot insurgency began with Saturninus and continued intermittently until the Romans defeated it in AD 73. Josephus himself started as a Zealot general. Luke also mentioned the census when rabbi Gamaliel (fl. 1st century AD) said, "After him, Judas the Galilean appeared in the days of the census and led a band of people in revolt" (Acts 5:37). This shows us that Quirinius' census in Judea also involved Galilee, where Mary and Joseph lived. Because the count began when Herod I was king of Judea (37–4 BC), it included Galilee. When he died in 4 BC, Herod's sons divided his kingdom, with Antipas (21 BC–AD 39) receiving Galilee and Perea. This means this census began with Saturninus and Herod I.
Joseph & Mary in the Census
Joseph was a descendant of David, the ancient king of Israel. This is important because many Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah said he would be from David's family tree. Bethlehem was David's hometown, so the Messiah would have to be born there (see Mic. 5:2). The census forced Joseph to travel with his wife, Mary, from Nazareth to Bethlehem. Scholars often insist that the Roman Empire did not order people to return to their ancestral towns. This contrasts with Luke's narrative of Joseph returning to Bethlehem: "And everyone went to their own town to register" (2:3). They accuse Luke of inventing the Bethlehem story to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, although he lived in Nazareth. However, there are extant mentions in Roman history when they ordered people back to their hometowns for a count. Here is an example from the Roman province of Egypt in AD 104:
Gaius Vibius Maximus, Prefect of Egypt, says: "Seeing that the time has come for the house-to-house census, it is necessary to compel all those who for any cause whatsoever are residing outside their districts to return to their own homes, that they may carry out the regular order of the census, and may also diligently attend to the cultivation of their allotments" (in Barclay, p. 25).
Joseph also probably returned to Bethlehem for a convenient reason, and many Jews did the same. He did not have his extended family records at his Nazareth home. So, Joseph had to meet his relatives to get them before registering. This also explains why Joseph was looking for lodging there, assuming he could stay with an extended family member. Even today, we still must go to the vital records or social security offices in person. Luke's gospel blended Roman history with Joseph's practical need to get his records at home. This is like asking our grandparents to see their scrapbooks, birth certificates, photo albums, or property titles.
Justin Martyr wrote, "This is a village in the land of the Jews, thirty-five stadia from Jerusalem, in which Jesus Christ was born, as you can learn from the census which was taken under Quirinius, who was your first procurator in Judea" (First Apology, Ch. 34). Justin told his readers to check the records at the Tabularium in Rome if they doubted Luke's narrative.
Conclusion
Tertullian discussed Jesus' genealogy presented in Luke's gospel, including the mention of the census. He referred to Sentius Saturninus as the governor of Syria at the time of Jesus' birth, which aligned with the historical context described by Luke. Tertullian's mention of Sentius Saturninus supports the historicity of the census account in Luke's gospel. He used this reference as part of his defense against Marcion of Sinope's (AD 85–160) criticisms of the gospel narratives. Tertullian argued that the details provided by Luke are historically accurate and should be accepted as such. He added weight to the historical reliability of the census narrative in Luke, supporting the idea that it was an actual event that took place during the time of Jesus' birth. Tertullian's affirmation of the census account underscores his commitment to defending the integrity of the gospel texts against challenges from critics like Marcion. In the broader context of the census debate, Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus provides an early Christian perspective on the historical background of the gospel narratives. While modern scholars may continue to scrutinize the historical details and chronological aspects of the census account, Tertullian's affirmation of its historicity offers insight into early Christian beliefs regarding the reliability of the gospel accounts.
Justin Martyr mentioned the census in his First Apology, addressing the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius (AD 86–161) and his sons, defending the Christian faith against accusations of atheism and immorality. He provided historical evidence for Jesus' birth in Bethlehem. Justin's reference to the census conducted under Quirinius corroborates Luke's account of the circumstances surrounding Jesus' birth. This mention served as a historical validation of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem and reinforced the credibility of the gospel narrative in the eyes of Roman authorities. By appealing to the census conducted by Quirinius, Justin established the historical context of Jesus' birth and provided evidence to support Christian claims about the Messiah's fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies. This reference also underscores Justin's familiarity with Roman administrative practices and historical events, further enhancing his credibility as a defender of the Christian faith. This reference was a crucial piece of historical evidence in Justin's defense of Christianity against Roman scrutiny and contributed to the broader Christian tradition surrounding the nativity story.
Blessed are you, LORD our God, King of the universe; for you sent your beloved Son to redeem us from sin and death, and to make us heirs in him of everlasting life; that when he shall come again in power and great glory to judge the world, we may without shame or fear rejoice to behold his appearing. Amen.
Bibliography
Barclay, William. The Gospel of Luke. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001.
The Book of Common Prayer. Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 152. https://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf.
Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. New York: Doubleday, 1993.
Evans, C. F. "Tertullian's References to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census." The Journal of Theological Studies 24, no. 1 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1973): 24–39. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23959449.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Gospel According to Luke I–IX. Anchor Bible 28. New York: Doubleday, 1981.
Gruen, Erich S. "The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus" in The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume X: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996. p. 168.
Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews 18. Peter Kirby, edited for Early Jewish Writings, 2001. http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant18.html.
⸻. The Jewish War 2. https://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/war2.html.
Keener, Craig S. The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.
Marshall, I. Howard. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Martyr, Justin. Early Christian Fathers 1. Trans. Cyril C. Richardson. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1953. Harry Plantinga, edited for Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1993–2020. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.x.ii.iii.html.
Niskanen, William A., and Stephen Moore. "Cato Institute Policy Analysis No. 261: Supply-Side Tax Cuts and the Truth about the Reagan Economic Record." Washington, DC: Cato, 1996. https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa261.pdf. pp. 14–16.
NIV Quest Study Bible: The Only Q and A Study Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.
Stein, Robert A. An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture. Nashville: B&H, 1993. pp. 103–105.
Strauss, Mark L. Luke. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019.
Tertullian. "The Five Books against Marcion." Ante-Nicene Fathers 3. Trans. Peter Holmes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1885. Harry Plantinga, edited for Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1993–2020. https://ccel.org/ccel/tertullian/against_marcion/anf03.v.iv.v.xix.html.
Vermes, Géza. The Nativity: History and Legend. New York: Doubleday, 2006.
Wright, N.T. The New Testament and the People of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.
Comments