Introduction
While touring the district of Caesarea Philippi, Jesus asked his disciples about his identity. After the others fumbled through their responses, Simon son of Jonah correctly declared, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God" (Matt. 16:16). Jesus was so impressed with his declaration that he called Simon "Peter" (Greek: Petros; G4074) and elected him to be the "rock" (Greek: petra; G4073) of his church, which will outlast the forces of wickedness (v. 18). This is the first passage in the New Testament that hints at the theological study of the church, or ecclesiology. This article delves into early church history as a template for church renewal and restoring "first-century faith."
Following Peter's confession, the early church laid its foundation in recognizing Jesus as the Messiah, the Son of the living God. This pivotal moment not only established Peter as a leader among the disciples but also laid the groundwork for the formation and growth of the Christian community. As the church spread throughout the Roman Empire in the following centuries, it encountered numerous challenges, including persecution, doctrinal controversies, and cultural opposition. However, the steadfast commitment of early Christians to the teachings of Jesus and the principles of the gospel enabled the church to endure and thrive amidst adversity. By studying the faith and practices of these early believers, Christians today gain valuable insights into navigating the complexities of the modern world while remaining faithful to the timeless truths of the Christian faith. Through a renewed focus on the foundational principles of discipleship, community, and mission, today's church can find inspiration and guidance in the rich legacy of its early beginnings.
Why the First Century?
Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the mid-twentieth century, biblical scholars and Christian theologians have significantly reexamined nearly all their prior assumptions. This event also coincided with the end of World War II, after the public realized that Nazi Germany killed approximately six-million Jews throughout Europe. The finding of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Holocaust moved scholars and theologians to jettison the layers of research that caused them to overlook much of the first-century contexts of Jesus and the gospel accounts (see "Auschwitz & Biblical Studies"). For nearly all Western Christians—Roman Catholics and Protestants alike—the doctrine of supersessionism was the main casualty of this new outlook.
Supersessionism is the notion that the church supersedes the role of ethnic Israel as God's chosen people (see "Israel: Election & Identity"). However, many Christians reconsidered this doctrine out of "Holocaust guilt," their consciences pricked by centuries of antisemitism that culminated in the industrial murder of Jews. Inherent in this guilt was the realization that Jesus and his original disciples were Jewish. Suddenly, he was no longer a mighty European king wearing a gold crown and purple robes but a humble Jewish tradesman who lived among the working class. Christians now sought to find the "historical Jesus" in the pages of the New Testament. They even started dialogues with Jewish scholars and rabbis to learn the perspectives they missed in nearly two thousand years of prejudice. The critical facet many Christians neglected was the presence of first-century customs and ideas that still affect Judaism today.
To achieve genuine ecclesiology, Christians must evaluate the first century and realize that Jesus was a Jewish man who lived in the Roman Empire. Undoubtedly, the world religion known as "Christianity" evolved in the following centuries across the globe, taking different forms in its expansive growth. Richard C. Halverson (1916–1995), the sixtieth chaplain to the United States Senate, observed:
In the beginning, the church was a fellowship of men and women centering on the living Christ. They had a personal and vital relationship with the Lord, and it transformed their lives and the world around them. Then the church moved to Greece, where it became a philosophy. Then it moved to Rome, where it became an institution. Then it moved to Europe, where it became a culture. Now it has moved to America, where it has become an enterprise (Dunnam & Moore, pp. 31–32; Larson, p. 50).
Simply put, the early disciples of Jesus were Jews and Gentiles who met together in solidarity because they encountered God himself. Each time the Christian faith moved to a different region, it assimilated a new local flavor. While that may seem like a good thing at first, the teaching of Jesus and his apostles became too convoluted or vague with the novel additions. In the context of Halverson's remark, the church also took on a different identity each time it crossed various lands. Considering that Jesus said, "My yoke is easy to bear, and my burden is light" (Matt. 11:30), this is not a problem to ignore.
God sent his Son, Jesus, to the Roman province of Judea in the first century for a reason. Perhaps he waited until Israel, the nation he established through a covenant of circumcision, could propel the rule of law among all humankind. In the Hebrew calendar, Jesus' birth probably occurred between 3757 and 3762. Remember that the "first century" is a later estimate to mark the year of his nativity on the Gregorian calendar. For Jews, their years theologically reckon the time from the world's creation in Genesis. Jesus entered the world at the proper time in Jewish history when the Romans were about to destroy their temple and disperse the Jews worldwide. The prophet Daniel warned about this when he predicted Israel's destruction by a future empire that would be more powerful than the others that ruled it: Babylon, Persia, and Greece (see Dan. 2, 7, 8). He also predicted the desecration of the temple (see Dan. 9:27; Matt. 24:15), which took place in AD 70 when the Roman general Titus (AD 39–81) sacked and looted it. To grasp the influence of the first century in world history, one only has to see how contemporary Jews approach the Western Wall, where they still mourn the temple's destruction even some two thousand years later. In Rome, the Arch of Titus also commemorates the sacking of the temple in modern-day times. Jesus warned the leaders of Israel that the temple was in its last days, especially in his Olivet Discourse (see Matt. 24:1–25:46; Mark 13:1-37; Luke 21:5-36). He also told how the Gentiles would militarily occupy the city of Jerusalem until God decided its outcome (see Luke 21:24). This only happened in 1948 when the United Nations granted the State of Israel its sovereignty, just as the world learned about the Dead Sea Scrolls and the aftermath of the Holocaust.
The temple's importance was the directly visible presence of God (Hebrew: Shechinah; H7931). The Jewish people had the privilege of having God within their borders, unlike the other nations. However, the arrival of Jesus represented a change to God's continued presence. He no longer confined himself to a physical location or a specific national religion but revealed his will to all humankind (see John 4:21-24). So, when the Jews came to other parts of the Roman Empire, they brought their knowledge of the divine. Jesus warned the Jewish leaders about the temple's imminent ruin. He taught that God wanted all people to worship him in spirit and truth, no matter where they lived (see John 4:24). The temple was going away, and Jesus would now represent the Shechinah of God. This was why he promised, "For where two or three gather in my name, there am I with them" (Matt. 18:20). This teaching was a paraphrase of the typical Jewish expression, "When two sit together, and there are words of Torah spoken between them, the Divine Presence [Shechinah] rests with them" (Pirkei Avot 3:3). When Josephus (AD 37–100), a Jewish-Roman historian, wrote about the temple's fall in AD 70, he testified that a brilliant light shined around the altar in the Holy of Holies for about thirty minutes before disappearing. Next, he said the brass temple gate—so heavy that it required twenty men to move it—opened on its own around midnight. Josephus credited this deed to God, indicating that his Shechinah presence forsook the Jews so the Romans could enter the temple and raze it. Finally, he wrote that a booming voice filled the inner court, announcing, "We are leaving this place" (The Jewish War Bk. 6, Ch. 5, § 3). Simply put, God removed his presence from the temple, marking the end of the age.
A Galilean Fellowship
The Holy Spirit inaugurated the church on Pentecost when each apostle received various spiritual gifts and testified about their faith in Christ. Simon Peter delivered a powerful sermon to many Jews from the Mediterranean and the Near East. As a result, the earliest disciples of Jesus met in fellowship and shared their belongings in common (see Acts 2). Although this pattern was short-lived, they set a precedent for shared meals and giving for the church to keep long into the future. The disciples started preaching to their fellow Jews immediately after Pentecost, fifty days after Jesus' resurrection (see Acts 1-2). They initially described their christocentric movement as "the Way" (see Acts 9:2; 18:25-26; 19:9, 23; 22:4), which was probably derived from Jesus' assertion, "I am the way and the truth and the life" (John 14:6). Because no mortal could ever speak infallibly. Neither could they guarantee eternal life; the disciples naturally identified themselves as "the Way" toward the truth and life of Jesus. In other words, salvation in Christ is a continuous journey toward finding God's kingdom.
The breaking of bread was the most unifying practice in the first-century church. Jesus instructed his followers to remember his death and resurrection in the partaking of bread and wine, which signified his body and blood (see Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24). The disciples whom Christ met on the road to Emmaus only recognized him once he broke bread for a shared meal; not when they were walking with him (see Luke 24:13-35). However, Jesus did not drink wine near Emmaus but only ate bread. This is because he vowed during his final supper before death that he would never again drink wine until God's kingdom arrived (see Mark 14:25). Likewise, he taught his disciples about this kingdom in a series of parables, in which marriage banquets were the central theme (see Matt. 22:1-14; 24:42-51; 25:1-13; Mark 13:34-37; Luke 12:35-48; 14:7-24). The marriage dinner was an eschatological sign of God's kingdom, and the love feasts the early church shared also represented its joy for a final victory with Christ. The wedding meal at Cana, where Jesus turned water into wine (see John 2:1-12), also foreshadowed the church's meeting with him on the last day. So when Paul of Tarsus noticed how the wealthier members used the love feasts to exploit the poorer ones, he rebuked them harshly for abusing God's image (see 1 Cor. 11:17-22). By this time, the Way had moved from its center in Jerusalem to all of Galilee, Judea, Phoenicia, and Samaria (see Acts 9:31; 15:3).
The church as a fellowship was not without its leaders. When the Jewish members of the Way, under the direction of Simon Peter, contested the Gentiles who sided with Paul, they went to Jerusalem to meet with James. At the council that met around AD 50, James oversaw the debate between the two apostles and presented his resolution based on the Law of Moses' guidelines for foreigners living in Israel (see Acts 15; Lev. 17-18). James headed the Council of Jerusalem as a bishop (Greek: episkopos; G1985, "overseer"). As Jesus' brother, he held much authority even among the twelve apostles (see Gal. 1:18-19), mainly because he stayed in Israel's holiest city to lead the church there. However, most of the bishops in the first century were local, looking over a network of home gatherings (see Acts 20:28). Whenever the New Testament writers used the word "church" (Greek: ekklēsia; G1577; "called out"), they included all of the Christians who lived in a given city.
For this reason, Paul addressed his letters to the "church at Corinth," the "church at Ephesus," the "church at Colossae," etc. The ekklēsia, in this context, was simply a gathering of believers in Christ. Moreover, the apostles knew that for the overall church to survive, they needed to appoint elders in each local congregation who would preserve the Way for future generations (see Acts 14:23; Titus 1:5). The deacon (Greek: diakonos, G1249; "server") helped the bishops and elders with the everyday concerns of individual believers (see 1 Tim. 3:8-13). Thus, the first-century church established a threefold pattern: bishop, elder, and deacon. However, these were functions rather than hierarchical positions. Jesus expressly forbids the apostles from seeking rank in God's kingdom (see Matt. 20:26; Mark 10:43), and even Paul routinely downplayed his apostolic role in finding churches (see 1 Cor. 9). He also described a fivefold ministry of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (cf. Eph. 4:11).
At the close of the first century, John contacted the seven churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea (see Rev. 1:11). The number seven in Judaism represents completion, fulfillment, and perfection because God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. Therefore, the seven churches in Revelation illustrated the common church for all time and space (see "A Saga of Seven Churches"). Jesus told each of his disciples to stay the course and repent as soon as they err. He was the cornerstone upon which the prophets and the apostles—the foundation and the pillars—built the church of God on the "rock" of Peter's confession (see Eph. 2:19-21; Gal. 2:9; Matt. 16:18). In other words, Christ laid out the template for his people to follow well into the future.
A Greco-Roman Philosophy & Institution
Formulating the Trinity was the hallmark of the church's movement into Greece and Rome. From the second to the eighth centuries, the five "apostolic" churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople met at six ecumenical councils to narrow down what all Christians should believe about the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. All these cities began in the Roman Empire until the eastern side developed into the Byzantine Empire around 330. The metropolitan bishop—a hierarchical post that evolved in the second century—from each of the five cities governed the church together, often meeting to ensure an institutional orthodoxy. The Greek-speaking bishops were more concerned with the intricacy of language, assuming they knew better than their Latin-speaking peers simply because the New Testament authors used Greek.
Conversely, the Latin bishops wanted to govern the church through jurisprudence, with close ties between the bishop of Rome and the emperor following the Edict of Milan in 313. So when the Greek and Latin bishops met at the councils of Nicaea, Chalcedon, Ephesus, and Constantinople, their attempts to work together were tenuous at best. The Latins wanted quick resolutions to justify the increasing power of Rome's bishop, while the Greeks were not afraid of tedious deliberation over technical language. In the doctrine of the Trinity, for example, the pentarchy of churches took nearly two hundred years to agree on the term homoousios (G3674, G3776, "of one essence") to explain the bond of the Father and the Son (see "Trinity: Jewish & Gentile Views").
However, this uniformity of doctrine failed to bring the church together but divided it into further schisms. Rome underscored its primacy, exploiting Jesus' identification of Simon Peter as the "rock" of his church (see Matt. 16:18) over its discernment of scripture. The Greek-speaking bishops of Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople also had ties to an emperor. However, they typically kept their churches free from the rule of an imperial bishop. The laypeople were the main casualty of all this Greek philosophizing and Roman legalizing. The bishops too readily identified the church with their position, neglecting the input of the ordinary Christian. They added rules about baptism and catechesis that the apostles never taught. For example, the newcomer had to finish two years of instruction to receive baptism. In the first-century church, the apostles baptized initiates as soon as possible (see Acts 2:41; 8:36-38; 9:18; 16:15, 33). This statement by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110) perfectly summarized the untenable connection between a hierarchical bishop and the definition of church:
Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. Baptizing or giving communion without the bishop's consent is not lawful. On the other hand, whatever has his approval is pleasing to God. Thus, whatever is done will be safe and valid (Smyrnaeans 8).
The implicit message is that the bishops succeeded the apostles of Jesus as the legitimate caretakers of his church. Anyone who agreed with the bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, or Constantinople was deemed ecumenical or "inhabiting" the common worldwide church (Greek: oikoumenē; G3625). Those beyond their control were anathema (G331, "given over" to the devil; cf. 1 Cor. 5:5)—pending destruction at the world's end.
A European Culture
The Great Schism of 1054 marked the church's expansion further into Europe when the Greek and Latin bishops mutually excommunicated each other. The first branch chose the name Orthodox, while the second preferred Catholic. They split Europe nearly in half, with the Latins taking the West and the Byzantines leaving with the East. Typically, each side kept to themselves, although regions such as the Balkan Peninsula often proved to be tinderboxes of conflict due to their mutual occupation. The only difference between the modern ethnicities of Bosnian, Croat, and Serb is the former state religion of their past alliances with the Ottomans, Romans, or Byzantines, respectively. Because of the Ottoman—and, by extension, Islamic—threat against the Byzantines, Rome often enjoyed the unchecked rule of the continent until the Greek missionaries Cyril (c. 827–869) and Methodius (c. 815–884) converted the Slavs. From that point forward, the Byzantines would no longer be the critical Orthodox menace but the rugged and ominous Russians—the "third Rome."
During the Middle Ages, the Catholic and Orthodox churches infiltrated every European cultural area. They created the first universities, and the Bishop of Rome—or "Pope," as the Catholics now described him—served as the kingmaker throughout the West. Not to be outdone, the Muscovite bishops grew closer to the Russian emperor, the new "Caesar" (Russian: Czar). In effect, the typical Christian church now became a series of national and ethnic churches, with the primary focus on internal politics rather than the teaching of Jesus. Even with the Reformation in the sixteenth century, when thousands of Western Christians separated from the Pope's authority, these "Protestants" still organized their churches along national and cultural boundaries. Martin Luther (1483–1546) was the Reformer for the Germans, John Calvin (1509–1564) for the Swiss, Johannes Polyander (1568–1646) for the Dutch, John Knox (1514–1572) for the Scots, and Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) for the English. However, the final result of the Reformation was not the continuation of a "first-century faith" but the worst violence and warfare that was without parallel in Europe until the World Wars of the twentieth century. Massive population shifts and refugee crises occurred in nearly two hundred years of fighting over religion. These conflicts included the Peasants' War (1524–1525), the Schmalkaldic Wars (1546–1547), the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), the French Wars of Religion (1562–1629), the Dutch Revolt (1572–1609), the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), and the English Civil War (1642–1651). Granted, there were more causes of this violence than just religion, but the participation of the clergy and theologians in these campaigns shows precisely how compromised the church had become. Jesus taught his disciples, "Likewise, every good tree bears good fruit, but a bad tree bears bad fruit. . . . Thus, by their fruit you will recognize them" (Matt. 7:17, 20). The inculturation of the church caused warfare and a gradual march to secularization.
An American Enterprise
The success theology many Christians know as the "prosperity gospel" is unique to the United States, except for the countries that learned it from American missionaries. However, the church as an enterprise began with the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony when the Puritans and other Protestant minorities fled from Britain to avoid religious tensions. While the citizens of continental Europe suffered through two centuries of nearly endless war, many Britishers absconded to their overseas colonies to avoid religious oppression. From the outset, the Puritans were a sect in the Church of England that blended Calvinist and Anabaptist ideas. They did not think the Articles of Religion were a fair treatment of their ecclesiological concerns, especially Article 38, which dismissed their call to abolish private property in favor of a collaborative economy. They believed all Christians should emulate the apostles, who shared everything in common (see Acts 2:44-45). When Thomas Cranmer, writer of the Articles, upheld the land gentry's objections, they scorned the Puritans well into the next century. As a result, about 15,000 Puritans migrated to America between 1620 and 1642, where they could form their society. The vast majority were middle-class families who thrived in Britain. Their goal in founding Massachusetts was expressly religious, hoping to create a "city on top of a hill," alluding to Jesus' call for the church to be an obvious example of righteousness (see Matt. 5:14).
The prosperity gospel begins and ends with the "Christian nation myth," the misuse of Christianity as the basis of American national religion. The Puritans, who were middle-class, prided themselves on their work ethic, taken from Calvinist theology. They read Paul's charge for the Colossians to work for God instead of the recognition of their supervisor. The next verse presents the guarantee of reward and inheritance (see Col. 3:23-24). Theologians call this concept the "Protestant work ethic," implying that God predestined some people to be rich and others to be poor. The entire framework of the American national religion is that God elected the United States as his "city on a hill" and led out his new people from the tyranny and blasphemy of war-torn Europe—a new exodus for a new Israel. This was an offshoot from the doctrine of supersessionism, or the church superseding the Jews as God's elect. Together, the Christian nation myth and the Protestant work ethic became a "manifest destiny" that God willed the United States to span the choicest regions of North America. This convenient narrative justified everything from the chattel slavery of Africans, the genocide of Native Americans, the abuse of laborers, and racial discrimination. John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), who was a Baptist and one of the wealthiest men in the world, typified the church as an American enterprise when he said:
I believe the power to make money is a gift from God . . . to be developed and used to the best of our ability for the good of humankind. . . . I believe it is my duty to make money and still more money and to use the money I make for the good of my fellow man according to the dictates of my conscience.
A Renewal of Fellowship
In the liturgical text of Psalms, King David wrote about praising, blessing, and thanking God in the "great congregation" (see Ps. 22:25; 26:12; 35:18; 68:26). He also testified about God's saving help, faithfulness, salvation, and steadfast love (see 40:10), as well as his "good news of righteousness" (40:9). In the Septuagint, a Greek interpretation of the Old Testament, ekklēsia is the same word that English-language translators render as "church." For David, this was the great congregation of Israel over which he ruled. Interestingly, Paul and other New Testament writers chose the term ekklēsia over sunagōgē (G4864, "synagogue") because it more accurately linked the Way to an expanded definition of Israel than a physical building. Likewise, the church praises and thanks God for his faithfulness, salvation, steadfast love, and the glad news of deliverance—the gospel—in the name of Christ Jesus. The church is the immutable fellowship of Jesus' disciples and the eschatological wedding feast of God's kingdom. So, Christ's mission through his church is to honor God and to inaugurate his eternal sabbath. This means Christians in the real world should pursue the Holy Spirit even in their most difficult moments, balancing correct teaching with genuine concern for all human beings. Therefore, "the law of prayer is the law of belief" (Latin: Lex orandi, lex credendi), meaning the church only fulfills God's intent when it connects with him regularly. This happens in common prayer by those who strive for truth in the Holy Spirit (see John 14:15-21), in the sacraments of baptism and communion, especially in the forgiveness of sins (see Acts 5:31), and the care of the poor (see Matt. 25:31-46).
The true definition of church is neither a hierarchy nor a physical building, but the temple of Jesus' body where God reveals his direct presence (see John 2:21). His disciples are much smaller temples of the Holy Spirit, forming a collective whole (see 1 Cor. 6:19). On the last day, Christ will marry his church in God's heavenly city, a new Jerusalem from which he will never remove his presence (see Rev. 21:2, 9). In the meantime, Christians are to stay alert for Jesus, their bridegroom (see Matt. 25:1-13). To do this, they must learn to be faithful disciples, not just proselytes to the religion of Christianity. The Greek mathētēs (G3101; "disciple"), which arises from the same root as the word "mathematics," refers to someone who counts the cost and then makes a personal commitment (see Luke 14:28). To be a citizen of God's kingdom, one must adopt the narrative of Jesus' life and teaching as their personal story. Therefore, the goal of renewal must bring the true church worth getting up for. Jesus commissioned this ekklēsia to baptize and to create disciples, to immerse them in God's vast history of deliverance and healing (see Matt. 28:19-20). The church that deserves awakening is not a good idea, an organization, a culture, or a business, but a fellowship of God's people living under the Holy Spirit's counsel (see "Paleo-Orthodoxy & Succession").
Prayer
Blessed are you, LORD our God, King of the universe; look favorably on your whole church, that wonderful and sacred mystery; by the effectual working of your providence, carry out in tranquility the plan of salvation; let the whole world see and know that things which were cast down are being raised, and things which had grown old are being made new and that all things are being brought to their perfection by him through whom all things were created, your Son, Jesus the Messiah our Lord; who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever. Amen.
Bibliography
"Articles of Religion." London: Church of England. https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer/articles-religion.
Attridge, Harold W., ed. The NRSV HarperCollins Study Bible, Revised and Updated with Apocryphal and Deuterocanonical Books. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2006.
Bednarowski, Mary Ferrell, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 7: Twentieth-Century Global Christianity. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008.
Beker, J. Christiaan. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980.
The Book of Common Prayer. Huntington Beach, CA: Anglican Liturgy Press, 2019. p. 646. http://bcp2019.anglicanchurch.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BCP2019.pdf.
Bornstein, Daniel E., ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 4: Medieval Christianity. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009.
Boyer, Paul S., Clifford E. Clark Jr., Sandra McNair Hawley, Joseph F. Kett, Andrew Rieser, Neal Salisbury, Harvard Sitkoff, and Nancy Woloch. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, Volume 1: To 1877. Sixth ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2010.
Burrus, Virginia, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 2: Late Ancient Christianity. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005.
Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body: Understanding and Healing the Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Washington, DC: Euclid Univ. Press, 2009.
Cruse, C. F., trans. Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.
Danker, Ryan N., ed. The Faith Once Delivered: A Wesleyan Witness to Christian Orthodoxy. Alexandria, VA: John Wesley Institute, 2022. https://nextmethodism.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Faith-Once-Delivered-FINAL-1.pdf.
Davis, E. Philip. The Crisis and the Kingdom: Economics, Scripture, and the Global Financial Crisis. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2012.
Dunn, James D. G. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 1: Jesus Remembered. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.
⸻. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 2: Beginning from Jerusalem. 2009.
⸻. Christianity in the Making, Vol. 3: Neither Jew nor Greek: A Contested Identity. 2015.
Dunn, James D. G., and John William Rogerson, eds. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.
Dunnam, Maxie D. Cultivating a Thoughtful Faith. Ed. Stephen G. W. Moore. Nashville, Abingdon, 2005. Kindle.
Edwards, Judson. Acts Annual Bible Study: Living with Passionate Faith. Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2008.
Feaver, Karen M. "The Soul of the Senate." Christianity Today 39 (Christianity Today, 1995). https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1995/january9/5t1026.html.
Friedman, Jonathan C., ed. The Routledge History of the Holocaust. The Routledge Histories. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2012.
Grillmeier, Aloys. Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Council of Chalcedon (451) to Gregory the Great (590—604) 2, no. 1. Trans. Pauline Allen and John Cawte. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2011.
Gutenson, Charles E. Church Worth Getting Up For. Nashville: Abingdon, 2013.
Horsley, Richard A, ed. People's History of Christianity, Vol. 1: Christian Origins. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005.
Ignatius. Smyrnaeans. Trans. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peter Kirby, edited for Early Christian Writings, 2001. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html.
Josephus. The Jewish War 6. Peter Kirby, edited for Early Jewish Writings, 2001. http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/war6.html.
J. R. B. "Dr. Johannes Polyander (1568–1646)." Edinburgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1989.
Knight, Jonathan. Christian Origins. New York: T&T Clark, 2008.
Kreider, Alan, ed. The Origins of Christendom in the West. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2001.
Krueger, Derek, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 3: Byzantine Christianity. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010.
Larson, Bruce. Wind and Fire: Living Out the Book of Acts. Waco, TX: Word, 1984.
Lawler, Jennifer. Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004.
Matheson, Peter, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 5: Reformation Christianity. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007.
MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. New York: Penguin, 2011.
Marshall, I. Howard. The Acts of the Apostles: An Introduction and Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.
⸻. The Reformation: A History. New York: Penguin, 2003.
Moore, Susan Hardman. Pilgrims: New World Settlers and the Call of Home. London: Yale Univ. Press, 2007.
Nexon, Daniel H. The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change. Princeton Univ. Press, 2009.
Nothaft, C. Philipp E. Medieval Latin Christian Texts on the Jewish Calendar: A Study with Five Editions and Translations. Leiden, Neth: Brill, 2014.
Papandrea, James L. The Wedding of the Lamb: A Historical Approach to the Book of Revelation. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011.
Porterfield, Amanda, ed. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 5: Modern Christianity to 1900. Ed. Denis R. Janz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006.
Spangler, Ann, and Lois Tverberg. Sitting at the Feet of Rabbi Jesus: How the Jewishness of Jesus Can Transform Your Faith. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2018.
Strauss, Mark L. Four Portraits, One Jesus: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels. Second ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020.
Vickers, Jason E. Minding the Good Ground: A Theology for Church Renewal. Waco, TX: Baylor Univ. Press, 2011.
Wauzzinski, Robert A. Between God and Gold: Protestant Evangelicalism and the Industrial Revolution, 1820-1914. Vancouver: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1993.
Whiston, William, trans. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.
Zakai, Avihu. Exile and Kingdom: History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992.
Bình luận