Introduction
Does the Revelation to John refer to past, present, or future events? We must enter John's first-century setting in Patmos to answer this question. He was a captive on the island, a prison colony for enemies of the Roman Empire. John had something to say to his original audience and later generations. Therefore, the twin theological positions of this article are partial preterism and historic premillennialism. In other words, Revelation mentions first-century events in a context that serves as a typological preview of things now and in the future. If the kingdom of heaven is "now and not yet" (see Luke 17:20-21; 19:11), the end times have been partially realized while others await us.
Full preterism is the eschatological position that all end times events happened in the first century, including Jesus' return. However, partial preterism views many parts of his Olivet Discourse (see Matt. 24:3–25:46; Mark 13:3-37; Luke 21:5-36) as "now and not yet." Full preterists believe Jesus returned in AD 70 when the Romans destroyed the second temple. Conversely, partial preterists generally see this eschaton as something in the future. We must be vigilant for Jesus' return, so belief in historic premillennialism seems most aligned with scripture. This was the early church's consensus for its first three hundred years. It is historic for this reason and because it differs from the dispensational premillennialism (i.e., the scriptural timeline features many dispensations) more commonly known by Christians today. Premillennialists of both types believe the literal millennium will occur after Jesus' second coming but before the resurrection of the living and the dead.
Antichrist: Man of Lawlessness
John wrote about the antichrist spirit in his first epistle and the Revelation he received. He warned that many antichrists would deceive humankind (see 1 John 2:18) and even alluded to one in particular: Nero (AD 37–68). Revelation is somewhat of a political document criticizing the Roman Empire ("Babylon"), especially its cruel and self-deifying emperor. John defined the antichrist as anyone who denies that Jesus is the Messiah (see 1 John 2:22). Whereas dispensationalists view the antichrist as the devil incarnate, the historic premillennial position sees him as an ordinary political leader like so many before. The antichrist is not eviler than other dictators but exists when God arranged for him. Historic premillennialists say that Revelation describes first-century events, especially the persecutions of Nero and Domitian (AD 51–96) against the church, typologies of future tribulations. Their hermeneutic formula is "now and not yet," Jesus and his apostles warned of things coming in their time and those yet to happen. Therefore, it is prudent to say that emperor Nero was the antichrist for the early church and, more like him, has manifested ever since. For example, he was the Caesar who executed both Peter and Paul in AD 64. Historically speaking, leaders such as "Bloody Mary" Tudor (1516–1558), Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Joseph Stalin (1879–1953), Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), or Islamic State (ISIS) fulfilled the role of "antichrist."
Although various sociopolitical pressures contributed to the persecution of Christians by these dictators, the central tenet of Christianity that "Jesus alone is Lord" challenged their rule. Simply put, antichrists fear the existence of a rival kingdom within their territories. That the church's persecution continues proves God's kingdom exists alongside the realm of darkness. Jesus taught that it does not come from this world (see John 18:36) but endures within the church (see Luke 17:21). In his parable of the strong man, Christ also referred to the binding of the devil (see Matt. 12:27-29), allowing the church to fulfill the Great Commission (see Matt. 28:19-20). Even in his time, Paul witnessed how the gospel "has been proclaimed to every creature under heaven" (see Col. 1:23). He also said to the Thessalonians, "And now you know what is holding him [i.e., the man of lawlessness] back, so that he may be revealed at the proper time" (2 Thess. 2:6). Upon release, the antichrist will hinder the gospel one last time, something lesser antichrists have been unable to do. Interestingly, the "Freer Logion" in the Codex Washingtonianus, quoted by Jerome of Stridon (c. 347–c. 419) in his treatise Against Pelagius, corroborated the first-century binding of the devil:
And [the disciples] excused themselves, saying, "This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits. Therefore reveal your righteousness now"—thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, "The term of years of Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was handed over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more, that they may inherit the spiritual and imperishable glory of righteousness that is in heaven" (see Mark 16:14 NRSV, fn. A).
As the realized eschatology of full preterism holds, the emperor Nero was not the final antichrist. However, John included symbols pointing to Nero because he was an immediate example of the ultimate antichrist to come. Since Julius Caesar's (c. 100–44 BC) assassination in 44 BC, the Roman Senate declared each emperor a god after death. However, Nero was the first Caesar to claim deity while still alive. For example, the coins he minted as the official Roman currency included sunbeams alluding to the sun-god Apollo. In the Jewish mind, such a claim was blasphemy, and using Nero's coins was likely considered idolatry or worshiping graven images. Also in view was the fiscus Judaicus, the "Jewish tax" imposed by the emperor Vespasian (AD 9–79) on all Jews following the sack of Jerusalem in AD 70. The fiscus Judaicus forced the Jews to give money to the Jupiter Capitolinus temple in Rome after Vespasian destroyed their temple. In Revelation, John used the Greek noun charagma (G5480) when describing the "mark" of the beast (see Rev. 13:16-17; 14:9, 11; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4). In this context, charagma was a coin engraved with Nero's likeness and his claim to divinity. Luke also used the word precisely when Paul told the Athenian philosophers that human beings are made in the image of God rather than by graven images (see Acts 17:29). Just as Christ rebuked the leaders of Israel for yielding to the emperor instead of God (see Matt. 22:20-21; Mark 12:16-17; Luke 20:24-25, 23:2), John admonished the early church to avoid Nero's coinage. He also warned of the economic impact regarding the inability to buy or sell without official currency (see Rev. 13:17). Stated plainly, the final antichrist will not just be a leader who denies the divinity of Jesus Christ but one that also persecutes the church. He will jeopardize the safety of individual Christians and isolate us from civil society. The worst example of Nero committing such an evil deed was the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, which he blamed on the Christians to justify slaughtering them.
Mark of the Beast in Revelation
The mark of the beast also has a decidedly Jewish meaning. Deuteronomy includes a passage in which God commands the Israelites to acknowledge his sovereignty, to love him steadfastly, and to mark their foreheads and their hands with his precepts (see Deut. 6:8-9; Matt. 23:5). Jews often wear small leather boxes called tefillin (H8605, "prayers") or phulaktēria (G5440, "phylacteries") in keeping with God's law. Thus, the mark of the beast has a religious and spiritual dimension, not just a socioeconomic one. An antichrist tefillah reminds the wearer to disobey God and reject him outright. John warned the early Christians that anyone who received the mark would be judged by God at the world's end (see Rev. 14:9-11). It is not enough for the devil to tempt humans but to offer himself as a counterfeit deity with a false gospel. Thus, the antichrist is his copy of Jesus Christ for the fallen world. With a risen Christ, there must be a risen antichrist.
Thereby, John reportedly saw a beast with ten horns and seven heads, one of which had been mortally wounded but miraculously healed (see Rev. 13:1-3). Rome is the beast, a city known to have encompassed the traditional seven hills of Palatine, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Capitoline. Its seven heads are various emperors starting from Julius Caesar through Nero, the latter being the wounded but restored head. When John wrote about this revelation, he probably had some source material. For example, the Sibylline Oracles mentioned a Roman folk belief that Nero did not commit suicide in AD 68 but was plotting an insurgency against the empire from his Parthian stronghold (4.160).
In his footnotes for this passage in Revelation, the Methodist biblical scholar Milton S. Terry wrote, "Nero, whose murder of his mother is notorious, and whose flight beyond the Euphrates and expected return as antichrist was a superstitious tradition long maintained" (p. 4.155). Coincidentally, the Roman historians Tacitus (c. AD 56–120), Suetonius (c. AD 69–122), and the Greek philosopher Dio Chrysostom (c. AD 40–110) accounted for three men who attempted revolts while claiming to be Nero resurrected. It is also possible that Domitian could have been the Nero redivivus metaphorically, that another wicked emperor like Nero took his place. Either way, the mark of the beast is a graven image of a false god upon the forehead—the center of abstract thought and order—and the hand that carries out what the mind plans. The antichrist to come will likely find a modern device that he can use to control one's ability to buy or sell. He will also employ it to malign God's people at the spiritual level.
666 & 616: Number of His Name
John said that the antichrist was just a man. He advised the reader to identify the antichrist by calculating the mathematical value of his name: 666 (see Rev. 13:18). Some manuscripts of Revelation have 616 instead of 666 as the antichrist's number, but only to make the same reference to Nero in the Latin language (Nro Qsr) as in the original Greek (Nron Qsrn) when transliterated into the Hebrew alphabet. Some of the original Greek manuscripts of Revelation use this shorthand instead of writing out the words: χξϛ (i.e., the letters chi, xi, and stigma) or χξϝ with a digamma representing the number six. John's warning is about a human being, not the devil incarnate. The man of sin will be a political leader who may not even know he is the antichrist rather than just a disbeliever in God. Just as the emperor Nero had more than a few Roman citizens who admired him, the antichrist was a celebrated ruler. The best example in modern times was Adolf Hitler, who mesmerized an entire nation so much that it venerated his name as a greeting (e.g., "Heil Hitler"). Yet, even a monster like Hitler succumbed to defeat and was no devil in disguise.
Times of the Gentiles Fulfilled
In Luke's gospel, Jesus warned his disciples about an imminent sack of Jerusalem. His prophecy referred to the conquest of Jerusalem in AD 70 by the Roman general Titus (39–81 AD). Thus, the Gentile domination of Judea's capital was a pending reality. However, Jesus also anticipated a time when such a Gentile rule would end (see Luke 21:24). This passage exemplifies the realized eschatology refrain, "now and not yet." The conquest of Jerusalem happened within one generation of Christ's foretelling according to his Olivet discourse (see Matt. 24:34). Likewise, Gentile dominion over Jerusalem ended on June 10, 1967, when the Israeli Defense Forces recaptured the city after defeating Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in the Six-Day War (pictured above). This is where premillennialists disagree with their dispensationalist counterparts: the identity of Israel (see "Israel: Election & Identity"). In premillennialism, Israel is either the church replacing the Jews under the Law of Moses or some combination thereof. Dispensationalists consider the modern State of Israel a rightful heir to God's chosen people of antiquity. Whereas the former do not generally weigh Jesus' foretelling about the "times of the Gentiles," the latter seemingly consider it too much. For nearly two millennia following the sack of Jerusalem in AD 70, Gentiles in the form of Roman soldiers, Byzantine imperialists, European crusaders, Islamic armies, and British colonizers occupied the city. Premillennialists should consider this fact alone meaningful, mainly because Jesus foretold it. Just as the biblical authors proclaimed the end times, "now and not yet," the identity of Israel is also twofold. Jesus referred to the final occupiers of Jerusalem as "Gentiles," who turned out to be Great Britain—then a culturally Christian nation.
Paul declared the Jews' refusal of Jesus as their Messiah "a close relationship between God and the world" (see Rom. 11:15). In other words, salvation came to the world's other nations because God's chosen people rejected him. However, Paul carefully warned his Roman audience that Israel, the Jewish people, is the original olive tree and they are merely secondary beneficiaries (see Rom. 11:17-24). The church does not, nor will it ever, supersede national Israel. Premillennialists and dispensationalists teach an "either/or" dichotomy in which Israel must be the church or the Jewish people. Not only did Paul identify God's people as two separate yet reciprocal communities, but also John. Dispensationalists typically identify the two olive trees and lampstands of Revelation as Moses and Elijah, but John likely referred to old-covenant Israel and new-covenant Christendom. Consider the menorah's relevance in ancient and modern Jewish liturgy. The apostles Paul and John wrote about the same reality: God chose the Jewish people and the disciples of Jesus to tell of his precepts.
Interestingly, John described how the antichrist would attack both witnesses and encourage the world to celebrate their deaths. However, God resurrected these lampstands after three days; at the same time, he allowed Jesus to experience death. Although the State of Israel may provide the world with a tangible community of Jews, it does not necessarily imply that the eschaton is imminent. The world's persecution of Israel and the church will continue until it escalates to warfare against them. The final antichrist will lead the charge against the two olive trees and lampstands that witness God's righteousness. When John wrote about the "nations" (i.e., Gentiles) that will revolt against the witnesses, he was talking about those people outside God's old and new covenants (see Rev. 11:1-14). Thus, the downfall of the antichrist and his followers will be the ultimate fulfillment of the times of the Gentiles.
Arrival of the King
In full preterist eschatology, Jesus returned in AD 70 to visit his wrath on national Israel for their rejection of his messiahship. However, the parousia (G3952; "arrival") must happen with knowledge of the entire world (see Rev. 1:7), to be announced with seven trumpets (see Rev. 8-11). Every knee will bow to Jesus, including all humans and angels in heaven, on earth, and those who died (see Phil. 2:9-11). However, the "trumpets" are not just any trumpets, but the shofar (H7782, "ram horn"). Jews only blow it on their most important feast days. A shofar blast launched the siege of Jericho (see Josh. 6:4-20), served as a call to repentance (see Isa. 58:1; Hos. 8:1), gathered people for assembly and worship (see Num. 10:3; Ps. 47:6), and announced the official visits of kings. Therefore, it symbolizes the end times. Today, the Jews most commonly associate the shofar with their New Year (Hebrew: Rosh ha-Shanah; H7218 & H8141, "head of the year") and the Day of Atonement (Hebrew: Yom Kippur; H3118 & H3725). The time between these holidays is known as the "Days of Awe," a time of deeply personal and national repentance. Consider how we make New Year's resolutions to do something better. The most significant use of the shofar is the Lord's day and the end of the age (see Isa. 27:13; Joel 2:1). Jesus himself will blow the "great shofar" when he returns, following great days of awe and repentance worldwide (see 1 Cor. 15:51-57; 1 Thess. 4:16).
The Jewish festivals give us a clue about God's timeline for the eschaton. We must be careful not to set dates, as Jesus forbids us (see Matt. 24:36; 25:13; Mark 13:32). However, the Father provided the Jews a calendar to know how he acts in the world. For example, Jesus is the Lamb of God who takes away the world's sins. Jesus was crucified on the day of preparation for the Passover (Hebrew: Pesach; H6453) while the lambs were being slaughtered for the Passover meal that evening. The Feast of Unleavened Bread points to Jesus' sinless nature, the perfect sacrifice for our sins. His body was laid in the grave during the initial days of this feast. Likewise, Jesus' resurrection took place on the day of Firstfruits (Hebrew: Bikkurim; H1061), as he became the "firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep" (1 Cor. 15:20). Pentecost (Hebrew: Shavuot; H7620)—fifty days after Jesus' resurrection—implies the excellent soul harvest of those who enter God's kingdom. Jesus inaugurated the Christian church on this day when he poured out the Holy Spirit.
The three months between Shavuot and Rosh ha-Shanah typify the current age of Christendom. Therefore, the three fall feasts have yet to be fulfilled in the life and work of Jesus the Messiah. He fulfilled the first four feasts on their days, so the last three will most likely be fulfilled on the actual days too. We cannot know for sure how they will be fulfilled. Still, they will probably correspond like so: 1) Rosh ha-Shana illustrates the parousia when Jesus appears in the heavens as a bridegroom coming for his bride, the church, 2) Yom Kippur signifies the day of Jesus' return, the Day of Atonement for the Jewish remnant when they will look on "the one they have pierced," repent of their sins, and receive him as their Messiah (see Zech. 12:10; Rom. 11:1-6; 25-36) and, 3) Sukkot—the Festival of Booths—points to God's promise that he will once again tabernacle with his people when he returns to reign over the world from Jerusalem (see Mic. 4:1-7). If the Jewish calendar, which marks the traditional date given to the earth's creation, sets the pattern for the end times, this makes the upcoming millennial reign of Jesus a type of Sabbath. The Talmud states the Messiah will come before 6000 (see Rosh ha-Shanah 31; Sanhedrin 97). Early church leaders such as Irenaeus (c. AD 130–202) also believed that Jesus would return after six days, following the biblical timescale of sevens and sabbaths. The first century was the fourth millennium for the Jews, so we are now in their sixth. This is 5784–85 by Jewish reckoning, AD 2024 on our Gregorian calendar. Could the Lord come to us by the end of our third millennium?
Conclusion
Historic premillennialism, as a whole, prioritizes biblical, historical, and theological data as a hermeneutic foundation. It has a human face and is not afraid to plumb the depths of human depravity to explore the potential antichrist spirit in all of us. Conversely, dispensationalism too often makes the antichrist into something other, never allowing someone to ensure they have adequately put away the antichrist spirit from themselves. Like Nero, everyone can deify themselves over God and commit heinous sins against him. Nonetheless, whenever a dispensationalist identifies a man as an "antichrist," they accurately see the evil within all humankind. However, Christians must prioritize their goodness over their wickedness if they love God and their neighbors. As Paul said, Christians love their fellows by assuming the best of them (see 1 Cor. 13:7).
The debate between premillennialists and dispensationalists seemingly pits metaphor and allegory versus literalism and commonsense interpretation. However, both eschatological positions are more complex than how they often appear. Historic premillennialists readily admit that evil exists and that it influences history. For this reason, the kingdom of heaven continues simultaneously with the church's great tribulation. John indicated that God permits the world to exist in its fallen state until the maximum number of souls gain salvation (see Rev. 6:11). In his parable of the weeds among the wheat, Jesus taught the church that sinners will coexist with saints until the world's end (see Matt. 13:24-30). This lesson challenges the majority dispensationalist view that Christ will rapture the church before the tribulation.
Conversely, the church experiences the great tribulation as much as it does the kingdom of heaven. The world will continue this way until the antichrist—Nero, resurrected—makes his final challenge to God and receives the due penalty for his rebellion. Thus, the mark of God is faith, while the mark of the beast is faithlessness.
Perhaps, we speak too much about the mark of the beast and not enough about the seal of the Spirit. Whereas the devil marks those who oppose God before the last day, God makes sure to seal us in our hearts for the day of redemption (see 2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:13-14; 4:30; 1 Pet. 1:5; Rev. 7:3-4; 9:4; 14:1; 22:4). Jesus warned us to keep watch, to pray, and to be ready for his return (see Mark 13:23; Luke 21:36). For this reason, he did not partake in the third cup of wine during his last supper, a Passover meal. The four cups represent the expressions of God's deliverance:
I will bring you out from under the yoke of the Egyptians. I will free you from being slaves to them, and I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment. I will take you as my own people, and I will be your God. Then you will know that I am the LORD your God, who brought you out from under the yoke of the Egyptians (Exod. 6:6-7).
The first cup represents holiness, the second deliverance, the third redemption, and the fourth praise. We await the cup of salvation on the last day when Jesus will finally partake of it in God's kingdom (see Matt. 26:29; Luke 22:18). As John wrote, "He who testifies to these things says, 'Yes, I am coming soon.' Amen. Come, Lord Jesus (Rev. 22:20).
Prayer
Blessed are you, LORD our God, King of the universe; by the resurrection of your Son on the first day of the week, you conquered sin, put death to flight, and gave us the hope of everlasting life: Redeem all our days by this victory; forgive our sins, banish our fears, make us bold to praise you and to do your will; and steel us to wait for the consummation of your kingdom on the last great day; through Jesus the Messiah our Lord. Amen.
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